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In the Service of God and Humanity: Conscience, Reason, and the Mind of Martin R. Delany: Notes

In the Service of God and Humanity: Conscience, Reason, and the Mind of Martin R. Delany
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Notes

table of contents
  1. Cover Page
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright Page
  4. Dedication
  5. Contents
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. Introduction
  8. Chapter 1: Religion: Integration and Black Nationalism
    1. The Black Church and Antislavery
    2. The Moral Suasion Challenge
    3. Engaging “Illiberal” and Liberal Churches
    4. Delany’s Materialist and This-Worldly Theology
    5. Religion and Emigration: 1850–1863
    6. Conclusion
  9. Chapter 2: Violence: Martyrdom vs. Survival
    1. Debating Violence
    2. Delany, Moral Suasion, and Violence
    3. Delany, the Fugitive Slave Law, and Violence
    4. Delany, John Brown, and Violence
    5. Delany’s Blake: Violence and Providential Determinism
    6. Conclusion
  10. Chapter 3: Education: Why, Which, and How?
    1. The “Education” of Martin Delany
    2. Crusading for Black Education: The Why, Which, and How
    3. Women’s Education and Black Liberation
    4. Race and Black Education
    5. Freedmen’s Education
    6. Conclusion
  11. Politics: Citizenship, Accommodation, and Reconciliation
    1. Moral Suasion: Pursuing/Fulfilling Citizenship (Antebellum)
    2. Actualizing Citizenship: Utilitarianism, Pragmatism, Accommodation (Postbellum)
    3. Conclusion
  12. Conclusion: Ahead of His Time
  13. Notes
  14. Bibliography
  15. Index

Page 151 →Notes

Acknowledgments

  1. 1. Gerald A. Burks, Partial Genealogy of Martin R. Delany (Revised. Unpublished manuscript, 2006), 1.
  2. 2. Ibid.
  3. 3. Gerald A. Burks, “Martin R. Delany,” AfriGeneas Genealogy and History Forum Archive, March 25, 2006.

Introduction

  1. 1. William E. B. Du Bois, “A Forum of Facts and Opinions,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 25, 1936.
  2. 2. Edna B. McKenzie, “Doctor, Editor, Soldier: On Pittsburgh’s Very Own Martin R. Delany,” Post-Gazette, February 5, 1992.
  3. 3. Philip Cash, “Pride, Prejudice, and Politics,” Harvard Medical School Alumni Bulletin 54 (December 1980): 20–25; Ronald Takaki, “Aesculapius Was a Whiteman: Ante-bellum Racism and Male Chauvinism at Harvard Medical School,” Phylon 39, no. 2 (1978): 129–134; Cyril Griffith, The African Dream: Martin R. Delany and the Emergence of Pan-Africanist Thought (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975); Floyd J. Miller, The Search for Black Nationality: Black Emigration and Colonization, 1787–1863 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975).
  4. 4. “Abraham Lincoln to Hon. E. M. Stanton, Secretary of War, February 8, 1865,” in Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany, by Frank A. Rollin (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1868), 171; Dorothy Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American: Martin Robison Delany, 1812–1885 (New York: Doubleday, 1971), 230–251.
  5. 5. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 269–276; Victor Ullman, Martin R. Delany: The Beginnings of Black Nationalism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 324–379.
  6. 6. Francis Simkins and Robert Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1966), 473–474.
  7. 7. Paul M. Gaston, The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), 178–179; Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Emancipation (London: Oxford University Press, Page 152 →1984); Joel Williamson, ed., The Origins of Segregation (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath & Co, 1968); Idus Newby, Jim Crow’s Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900–1930 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965).
  8. 8. Vincent Harding, “Beyond Chaos: Black History and the Search for the New Land,” in Amistad 1: Writings on Black History and Culture, ed. John A. Williams and Charles F. Harris (New York: Vintage Books, 1970); Sterling Stuckey, “Twilight of Our Past: Reflections on the Origins of Black History,” in Amistad 2: Writings on Black History and Culture, ed. John A. Williams and Charles F. Harris (New York: Vintage Books, 1971).
  9. 9. Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American; Ullman, Martin R. Delany; Griffith, The African Dream; Miller, The Search for Black Nationality; Theodore Draper, The Rediscovery of Black Nationalism (New York: Viking Press, 1970); see also Draper, “The Father of American Black Nationalism,” New York Times Review of Books, March 12, 1970.
  10. 10. Richard Blackett, “Martin Delany and Robert Campbell: Black Americans in Search of an African Colony,” Journal of Negro History 60, no. 11 (January 1977); Robert Khan, “The Political Ideology of Martin R. Delany,” Journal of Black Studies (June 1984); Nell I. Painter, “Martin R. Delany: A Black Leader in Two Kinds of Time,” New England Journal of Black Studies 8 (1989); Louis Rosenfeld, “Martin Robison Delany (1812–1885): Physician, Black Separatist, Explorer, Soldier,” Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 65, no. 7 (September 1989); Robert S. Levine, Martin Delany, Frederick Douglass, and the Politics of Representative Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Tunde Adeleke, Without Regard to Race: The Other Martin R. Delany (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003).
  11. 11. Ira Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: New Press, 1992); John Henderson Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, 1619–1865 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1913).
  12. 12. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 40.
  13. 13. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 38–42. Delany’s parents hastily departed Virginia to escape imminent prosecution for violating Virginia’s law criminalizing the education of Blacks. The family had acquired the New York Primer and Spelling Book from an itinerant trader with which the children began nocturnal study, and soon every member of the family had gained some literacy. Word got out that the Delanys had committed a crime. Pati escaped with the children to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania.
  14. 14. Ullman, Martin R. Delany, 22–23; Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 43–45.
  15. 15. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 43; Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 43–45.
  16. 16. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 43.
  17. 17. Ibid.
  18. 18. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 28. See also Ullman, Martin R. Delany, 45–46.
  19. 19. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 48–67.
  20. 20. Howard H. Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society, 1836–1841,” Journal of Negro Education 27 (Winter 1958); see also Bell, “National Conventions of the Middle Page 153 →1840s: Moral Suasion VS. Political Action,” Journal of Negro History 42, no. 4 (October 1957); Richard P. McCormick, “William Whipper: Moral Reformer,” Pennsylvania History 43 (January 1969).
  21. 21. Elizabeth Geffen, “Violence in Philadelphia in the 1840s and 1850s,” Pennsylvania History 4 (October 1969); Adam D. Simmons, “Ideologies and Programs of the Negro Anti-Slavery Movement, 1830–1861” (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1983); Bruce Laurie, Working People of Philadelphia, 1800–1850 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980).
  22. 22. Simmons, “Ideologies and Programs.”
  23. 23. The Fugitive Slave Law, part of the Compromise of 1850, was designed to defuse the growing sectional divide and animosity over the admission of new states. It now made it a crime to assist or give sanctuary to fugitives and pledged federal resources and support for their apprehension and return. See Stephen E. Maizlish, A Strife of Tongues: The Compromise of 1850 and the Ideological Foundations of the American Civil War (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2018).
  24. 24. Martin Delany, “National Disfranchisement of Colored People” in The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1993) 147–158. Originally published in 1852 in Philadelphia; see also Delany, “American Civilization: Treatment of the Colored People in the United States,” North Star, March 30, 1849, 2.
  25. 25. Martin Delany, “Sound the Alarm,” North Star, January 12, 1849.
  26. 26. Ibid.
  27. 27. “Minutes of the State Convention of the Colored Citizens of Pennsylvania, Convened at Harrisburg, December 13th and 14th, 1848,” in Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, vol. 2, 1840–1865, ed. Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), 124.
  28. 28. Delany, “Sound the Alarm” North Star, January 12, 1849.
  29. 29. Delany, “Sound the Alarm” North Star, January 12, 1849, 166–269; Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 230–299; Ullman, Martin R. Delany, 291–380.
  30. 30. Simkins and Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction; Alrutheus A. Taylor, The Negro in South Carolina During the Reconstruction (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1924); Thomas Holt, Black Over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977); Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861–1877 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965).
  31. 31. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, 138, 161.
  32. 32. Martin R. Delany, Trial and Conviction (Charleston, 1876).
  33. 33. William J. Cooper, The Conservative Regime: South Carolina, 1877–1890 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968); Henry T. Thompson, Ousting the Carpetbagger from South Carolina (New York: Negro University Press, 1928); Alfred B. Williams, Hampton and His Red Shirts: South Carolina Deliverance in 1876 (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1935).
  34. 34. Page 154 →Booker T. Washington, Up From Slavery: An Autobiography (New York: Dover Publications, 1995). First published by Doubleday, New York, 1901.
  35. 35. Tunde Adeleke, “Martin R. Delany and Booker T. Washington: Ideological Partners Separated by Time and Ideology,” in Booker T. Washington: Interpretative Essays (London: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1998), 35–80.
  36. 36. Ullman, Martin R. Delany, ix.
  37. 37. Angela Jones, ed., The African American Political Thought: A Reader from David Walker to Barack Obama (New York: Routledge, 2013).
  38. 38. North Star, June 16, 1848.

Chapter 1

  1. 1. Frank Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1868), 25.
  2. 2. Ibid., 24.
  3. 3. Dorothy Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American: Martin Robison Delany, 1812–1885 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1996). First published by Doubleday, New York, in 1971; Rollin, Life and Public Services, 22.
  4. 4. William E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1899; Philip S. Foner, ed., The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 5, Supplementary 1844–1860. (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 104.
  5. 5. Victor Ullman, Martin R. Delany: The Beginnings of the Black Nationalism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 26–27; See also Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 42–43.
  6. 6. Delany started the Pittsburgh Mystery in 1843 and ran it up to 1847 when he handed it over to a committee. Subsequently, the African Methodist Episcopal Church bought the Mystery and renamed it the Christian Herald. In 1852, the AME’s publication was moved to Philadelphia and renamed the Christian Recorder.
  7. 7. Lawrence J. Friedman, Gregarious Saints: Self and Community in American Abolitionism, 1830–1870 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1982). See also Robert W. Caldwell, Theologies of the American Revivalists: From Whitefield to Finney (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018).
  8. 8. “Letter from Columbiana, August 13, 1848,” North Star, August 25, 1848.
  9. 9. Ibid.
  10. 10. Ibid.
  11. 11. Ibid.
  12. 12. C. Peter Ripley, The Black Abolitionist Papers, vol. 3, The United States, 1830–1846 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 197.
  13. 13. Ibid.
  14. 14. Martin R. Delany, “Report from Pittsburgh, January 21, 1848,” North Star, February 4, 1848.
  15. 15. Ibid.
  16. 16. Page 155 →Ripley, The Black Abolitionist Papers, 198–200.
  17. 17. Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 68.
  18. 18. Adam D. Simmons, “Ideologies and Programs of the Negro Antislavery Movement, 1830–1861” (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1983), 34.
  19. 19. Ibid.
  20. 20. Ibid.
  21. 21. Ripley, The Black Abolitionist Papers, 198–200.
  22. 22. North Star, June 27, 1850.
  23. 23. Ibid.
  24. 24. “Letter from Columbiana, August 13, 1848,” North Star, August 25, 1848.
  25. 25. “Letter from Philadelphia, February 8, 1848,” North Star, February 25, 1848.
  26. 26. Will B. Gravely, “The Rise of African Churches in America, 1786–1822: Reexamining the Contexts,” in African American Religious Studies: An Interdisciplinary Anthology, ed. Gayraud S. Wilmore (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989), 301–317; Peter J. Paris, The Social Teaching of the Black Churches (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1985).
  27. 27. Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864 (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 34.
  28. 28. Kellie Carter Jackson, Force and Freedom: Black Abolitionists and the Politics of Violence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019), 20.
  29. 29. Ibid., 24.
  30. 30. Eddie S. Glaude Jr., Exodus! Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 118.
  31. 31. Ibid.
  32. 32. Ibid.
  33. 33. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions; see also his A Survey of the Negro Convention Movement (New York: Arno Press, 1969).
  34. 34. James B. Stewart, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), chapters. 1, 3; Gerald Sorin, Abolitionism: A New Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1972), chapters. 1, 4, 6; William Lloyd Garrison, “Declaration of Sentiments of the American Anti-Slavery Society,” Liberator, December 14, 1833, 198.
  35. 35. Howard H. Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society, 1836–1841,” Journal of Negro Education 27 (Winter 1958); Tunde Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion: The Debate in the 1830s,” Journal of Negro History l, xxxiii, no. 2 (Spring 1998); Richard P. McCormick, “William Whipper: Moral Reformer,” Pennsylvania History 43 (January 1969): 23–46.
  36. 36. Glaude Jr., Exodus! 131.
  37. 37. Ibid.
  38. 38. Colored American, August 26, 1837.
  39. 39. Ibid.
  40. 40. Page 156 →Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 299.
  41. 41. Ibid.
  42. 42. John Ernest, A Nation within a Nation: Organizing African American Communities before the Civil War (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2011), 11.
  43. 43. Carter Jackson, Force and Freedom, chap. 1.
  44. 44. William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, “Boston Garrisonians and the Problem of Frederick Douglass,” Canadian Journal of History 11, no. 2 (September 1967); Benjamin Quarles, “The Breach Between Douglass and Garrison,” Journal of Negro History 23, no. 21 (April 1938); Tyrone Tillery, “The Inevitability of the Douglass-Garrison Conflict,” Phylon 37, no. 2 (June 1976); Friedman, Gregarious Saints. Philip S. Foner, Frederick Douglass: A Biography (New York: Citadel Press, 1964), 15–172.
  45. 45. Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American: Martin Robison Delany, 93–106.
  46. 46. Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion”; Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society”; see also Bell, “Negro National Conventions of the Middle 1840s: Moral Suasion vs. Political Action,” Journal of Negro History 42, no. 4 (October 1957): 247–260.
  47. 47. Quarles, Black Abolitionists, 68–69.
  48. 48. Ibid.
  49. 49. North Star, February 11, 1848.
  50. 50. North Star, February 18, 1848.
  51. 51. North Star, February 10, 1848.
  52. 52. North Star, November 5, 1848, and February 18, 1848.
  53. 53. North Star, November 17, 1848.
  54. 54. North Star, December 1, 1848, and February 16, 1849.
  55. 55. Ibid.
  56. 56. Ibid.
  57. 57. Martin Delany, “Report from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, January 16, 1849,” North Star, February 16, 1849.
  58. 58. Martin Delany, “Colored Citizens of Pittsburgh,” North Star, July 13, 1849.
  59. 59. Ibid.
  60. 60. Ibid.
  61. 61. Ibid.
  62. 62. North Star, November 17, 1848.
  63. 63. Martin Delany, “Colored Citizens of Pittsburgh,” North Star, July 13, 1849.
  64. 64. Ibid.
  65. 65. Ibid.
  66. 66. Martin Delany, “Report from Cleveland, Ohio, July 24, 1848,” North Star, August 4, 1848.
  67. 67. Ibid.
  68. 68. Martin Delany, “Report from Hanover, Ohio, March 27, 1848,” North Star, April 14, 1848.
  69. 69. Page 157 →Ibid.
  70. 70. Ibid.
  71. 71. Ibid.
  72. 72. Ibid.
  73. 73. Ibid.
  74. 74. Martin Delany, “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio, May 20, 1848,” North Star, June 9, 1848.
  75. 75. Ibid.
  76. 76. Ibid.
  77. 77. Martin Delany, “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio, May 7, 1848,” North Star, May 26, 1848.
  78. 78. Ibid.
  79. 79. Ibid.
  80. 80. Martin Delany, “Report from Chillicothe, Ohio, April 20, 1848,” North Star, May 12, 1848.
  81. 81. Ibid.
  82. 82. Martin Delany, “Report from Milton, Ohio, June 18, 1848,” North Star, July 7, 1848.
  83. 83. Ibid.
  84. 84. Ibid.
  85. 85. Ibid.
  86. 86. Ibid.
  87. 87. Ibid.
  88. 88. Martin Delany, “Report from Lancaster City, Pennsylvania, December 18, 1848,” North Star, January 5, 1849.
  89. 89. Ibid.
  90. 90. North Star, July 24, 1848.
  91. 91. “Letter from Columbiana, August 13, 1848,” North Star, August 25, 1848.
  92. 92. For information on the views of the “Illiberal” Churches see Delany’s reports in North Star, particularly those of March 16 and 23, 1849, April 20, 1848, August 4, 1848, February 18, 1848, and April 27, 1849. See also E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Church in America (New York: Schocken Books, 1974), 19–34; Eric Lincoln and Lawrence Mamiya, The Black Church in the African American Experience (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990); Henry H. Mitchell, Black Church Beginnings: The Long-Hidden Realities of the First Years (Cambridge, UK: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004); Paris, The Social Teachings of the Black Churches.
  93. 93. Ibid.
  94. 94. Martin R. Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, March 23, 1849.
  95. 95. Ibid. See also Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, April 20, 1849.
  96. 96. Ibid.
  97. 97. Ibid.
  98. 98. Quoted in John Ernest, A Nation Within a Nation, 72–73.
  99. 99. Ibid. See also Glaude Jr. Exodus! 19–20.
  100. 100. Page 158 →Martin R. Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (New York: Arno Press, 1968), 37–38. First published 1852.
  101. 101. Ibid.
  102. 102. Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, March 23, 1849.
  103. 103. Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, April 23, 1849.
  104. 104. Martin Delany, “Report from Hanover, March 27, 1848,” North Star, April 14, 1848.
  105. 105. Ibid.
  106. 106. Ibid.
  107. 107. Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, April 13, 1849.
  108. 108. Ibid.
  109. 109. Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, April 13, 1849.
  110. 110. Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, April 20, 1849.
  111. 111. John Ernest, A Nation within a Nation, 78.
  112. 112. Ibid.
  113. 113. Tunde Adeleke, “‘Today is the Day of Salvation’: Martin R. Delany’s Struggles Against Providential Determinism in Early Nineteenth-Century Black Abolitionism,” Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion 13, no. 4 (2017).
  114. 114. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence Mamiya, The Black Church in the African American Experience (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990), 11.
  115. 115. Ibid., 11–12.
  116. 116. Adeleke, “Today is the Day of Salvation.” See also Henry H. Mitchell, Black Church Beginnings, 46–129.
  117. 117. North Star, March 31, 1848.
  118. 118. “M. R. Delany,” North Star, May 19, 1849.
  119. 119. Ibid.
  120. 120. “Letter from York, Pa., November 27, 1848,” North Star, December 15, 1848.
  121. 121. Ibid.
  122. 122. Henry H. Mitchell, Black Church Beginnings, 48–49.
  123. 123. Ibid.
  124. 124. Ibid., 49.
  125. 125. Ibid.
  126. 126. Ibid., 50.
  127. 127. Ibid., 60.
  128. 128. Simmons. “Ideologies and Programs of the Negro Antislavery Movement,” 5–57; Leonard L. Richards, “Gentlemen of Property and Standing”: Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jacksonian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); Mabee Carleton, Black Freedom: The Nonviolent Abolitionists from 1830 through the Civil War (London: The Macmillan Company, 1970); Stewart, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), 50–73.
  129. 129. Simmons, “Ideologies and Programs of the Negro Antislavery Movement,” chap. 2.
  130. 130. Page 159 →David M. Reimers, White Protestantism and the Negro (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 8; David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966); Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Vintage Books, 1976); Joseph R. Washington, Black Religion: The Negro and Christianity in the United States (Boston, MA, and Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984). First published in 1964; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Church in America; Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).
  131. 131. Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” North Star, March 23, 1849, and April 13 and 20, 1849.
  132. 132. “Minutes of the State Convention of the Colored Citizens of Pennsylvania, Convened at Harrisburg, December 13th and 14th, 1848,” in Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, 1840–1865, vol. 2., ed. Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), 124.
  133. 133. McCormick, “William Whipper: Moral Reformer,” Pennsylvania History 43, (January 1976): 37.
  134. 134. Martin Delany, “Report from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, February 24, 1849,” North Star, March 9, 1849, 1–2.
  135. 135. Ibid.
  136. 136. Ibid.
  137. 137. Ibid.
  138. 138. Ibid.
  139. 139. Ibid.
  140. 140. Martin Delany, “American Civilization: Treatment of the Colored People in the United States,” North Star, March 30, 1849, 2.
  141. 141. Lewis Woodson, “Going West,” Colored American, May 3, 1838, 4; May 16 and May 2, 1849, 2; October 6, 1838, 2.
  142. 142. Lewis Woodson, “Death vs. Expatriation,” Colored American, November 10, 1837, 2; October 6, 1838, 2; March 13, 1841, 6.
  143. 143. Lewis Woodson, “Death vs. Expatriation,” Colored American, October 27, 1838, 2.
  144. 144. Augustine, “For The Colored American, April 19, 1838,” Colored American, May 3, 1838
  145. 145. “Letter from M. R. Delany” in Frederick Douglass’s Paper, April 11, 1853
  146. 146. Grant Shreve, “The Exodus of Martin Delany,” American Literary History 29, no. 3 (2017): 449.
  147. 147. Martin Delany, The Condition, chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
  148. 148. Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundation of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 226.
  149. 149. Ibid., 230.
  150. 150. Tunde Adeleke, UnAfrican Americans: Nineteenth Century Black Nationalists and the Civilizing Mission (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998).
  151. 151. Page 160 →Martin Delany, “National Disfranchisement of Colored People,” in The Condition, 147–158.
  152. 152. “Letter from M. R. Delany,” in Frederick Douglass’s Paper, April 11, 1853.
  153. 153. Delany, The Condition, chap. 16. See also Delany, “Political Destiny,” in Life and Public Services, ed. Frank Rollin, 360; “Letter from Mr. Delany” Frederick Douglass’s Paper, April 11, 1853.
  154. 154. Foner, ed., The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, 202.
  155. 155. “Convention of Colored Persons in Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania Freeman, October 23, 1852.
  156. 156. “Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, Held in Rochester, July 6–8, 1853,” in Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864, ed. Howard H. Bell (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 39.
  157. 157. Miles M. Fisher, “Lott Cary: The Colonizing Missionary,” Journal of Negro History 7, no. 4 (December 1922); Henry N. Sherwood, “Paul Cuffee,” Journal of Negro History 8 (1928); see also Sherwood, “Paul Cuffee and his Contributions to the American Colonization Society,” Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, 1912–1913 6 (1913); James Sidbury, Becoming African in America: Race and Nation in the Early Atlantic (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Howard H. Bell, “Negro Nationalism: A Factor in Emigration Projects, 1858–1861,” Journal of Negro History 42 (January 1974); Bill McAdoo, Pre-Civil war Black Nationalism (New York: David Walker Press, 1983). First published in Progressive Labor 5 (June–July 1966); William Pease and Jane Pease, “Black Power: The Debate in 1840,” Phylon 29 (1968); George Shepperson, “Notes on Negro American Influences on the Emergence of African Nationalism,” Journal of African History 1, no. 2 (1960); Robert G. Weisbord, “The Back-to-Africa Idea,” History Today 56 (January 1968).
  158. 158. Voice of the Fugitive, July 30, 1851, 2; August 13, 1851, 2; September 24, 1851, 2.
  159. 159. R. J. M. Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom: Fugitive Slaves, the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law, and the Politics of Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 124–125.
  160. 160. Tunde Adeleke, Without Regard to Race: The Other Martin R. Delany (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003). See also Martin R. Delany, “The Moral and Social Aspect of Africa,” Liberator, May 1, 1863.
  161. 161. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014), 124.
  162. 162. Delany, The Condition, chap. 17. See also Tunde Adeleke, “Religion in Martin R. Delany’s Liberation Thought,” Religious Humanism 27, no. 2 (Spring 1993).
  163. 163. Delany, The Condition, 159–160.
  164. 164. Ibid.
  165. 165. Delany, The Condition, 172–173 and chap. 1. See also Delany, “Political Destiny,” 353.
  166. 166. Delany, The Condition, chap. 21.
  167. 167. Ibid., 183.
  168. 168. Ibid., 208.
  169. 169. Page 161 →“M. R. Delany to Dr. James McCune Smith (Important Movement),” The Weekly Anglo-African, January 4, 1862
  170. 170. Delany, The Condition, 183; Delany “Political Destiny,” 337.
  171. 171. Ibid.
  172. 172. “Proceedings of the first Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of Illinois, Chicago, October 6–8, 1853” in Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, 1840–1865, vol. 2, ed. Philip S. Foner and George Walker (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974).
  173. 173. Ibid.
  174. 174. M. R. Delany, “Illinois Convention” in Frederick Douglass’s Paper, November 18, 1853, 1.
  175. 175. Tommie Shelby, “Two Conceptions of Black Nationalism: Martin Delany on the Meaning of Black Political Solidarity,” Political Theory 31, no. 5 (October 2003): 680. See also Delany, “Political Destiny,” 327–367.
  176. 176. Shelby, “Two Conceptions of Black Nationalism,” 680.
  177. 177. Delany, “Political Destiny,” 327–367.
  178. 178. Ibid., 338.
  179. 179. Ibid.
  180. 180. The Provincial Freeman, June 7, 1856.
  181. 181. Ibid.
  182. 182. Ibid.
  183. 183. Patrick Rael, Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002) 237–238.
  184. 184. Ibid., 238.
  185. 185. Delany, “Political Destiny,” 342.
  186. 186. Ibid.
  187. 187. Ibid., 337.
  188. 188. Martin Delany, The Condition, 214.
  189. 189. Ibid.
  190. 190. “State Council of the Colored People of Massachusetts Convention, January 2, 1854” in Foner and Walker, eds., Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, vol. 2, 93.

Chapter 2

  1. 1. Kellie Carter Jackson, Force and Freedom: Black Abolitionists and the Politics of Violence (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press), 2019.
  2. 2. Ibid., 9.
  3. 3. Ibid., 46.
  4. 4. Ibid.
  5. 5. Frank A. Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1868), 40. Frances Rollin was born in Charleston in 1844, the oldest child of Page 162 →William Rollin of “French extraction.” She first met Delany while he was serving as a Freedmen’s Bureau agent. When he heard of her interest in a literary career, he asked her to write his biography. She agreed, and subsequently relocated to Boston, where she wrote and published the book in 1868. She returned to Charleston that same year and married William J. Whipper who was the nephew of William Whipper, the wealthy Pennsylvania businessman who helped start the American Moral Reform Society in 1835. The publisher of her Delany biography, Lee and Shepard, listed her as “Frank A. Rollin” because of the conviction “that the public was not prepared to accept a work by a Black woman.” Willard B. Gatewood Jr., “The Remarkable Misses Rollin: Black Women in Reconstruction South Carolina,” The South Carolina Historical Magazine 92, no. 3 (July 1991): 175, 172–188.
  6. 6. Rollin, Life and Public Services.
  7. 7. “Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)” in Civil Rights since 1787: A Reader on the Black Struggle, ed. Jonathan Birnbaum and Clarence Taylor (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 79.
  8. 8. “Convention of the Colored Citizens of Massachusetts, August 1, 1858,” in Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, 1840–1865, vol. 2., ed. Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 97.
  9. 9. Ibid.
  10. 10. Ibid.
  11. 11. Ibid., 104.
  12. 12. Ibid.
  13. 13. Ibid., 105.
  14. 14. Ibid.
  15. 15. Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864 (New York: Arno Press, 1969).
  16. 16. Earl Ofari, Let Your Motto Be Resistance: The Life and Thought of Henry H. Garnet (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1972), 144–153.
  17. 17. Leslie Friedman Goldstein, “Violence as an Instrument for Social Change: The Views of Frederick Douglass,” Journal of Negro History 61, no. 1 (January 1976): 62.
  18. 18. “Report of the Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, Held at Cleveland, Ohio, on Wednesday, September 6, 1848,” in Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 15–16.
  19. 19. Ibid.
  20. 20. Ibid. Also, Howard H. Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society, 1836–1841,” Journal of Negro History 27 (1958) 34–41.
  21. 21. George Hendrick and Willene Hendrick, Black Refugees in Canada: Accounts of Escape during the Era of Slavery (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. Inc., 2010), 24–43; Kerry Walters, The Underground Railroad: A Reference Guide (Denver, CO: ABC-Clio, 2012), 112–113, 140–142. See also H. A. Tanser, “Josiah Henson: the Moses of his People,” Journal of Negro Education 12, no. 4 (Autumn 1943): 630–632; W. B. Hartgrove, “The Story of Josiah Henson,” Journal of Negro History 3, no. 1 (January 1918): 1–21.
  22. 22. Ibid.
  23. 23. Page 163 →Ibid.
  24. 24. See IIona Kauremszky, “Uncle Tom Was a Real Person; His Cabin is in Canada,” Christian Science Monitor, January 26, 2005, 11. See also Tunde Adeleke, “Uncle Tom,” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2008. In African American History, “Uncle Tom” has come to represent a weak and cowardly personality, a racial sell-out—someone who compromises with, and is deferential to, White authority. The 1849 autobiography of Josiah Henson supposedly inspired Harriet Beecher Stowe’s epic novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852). Thus began the historical association of Henson with “Uncle Tom.” Stowe was a White abolitionist whose novel helped fan the antislavery flames that ignited the Civil War.
  25. 25. Foner and Walker, eds., Proceedings, 104.
  26. 26. Ibid.
  27. 27. Ibid.
  28. 28. Ibid.
  29. 29. Ibid.
  30. 30. Tunde Adeleke, Without Regard to Race: The Other Martin R. Delany (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003), chap. 3.
  31. 31. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 16.
  32. 32. Ibid., 27.
  33. 33. Ibid.
  34. 34. North Star, June 14, 1848.
  35. 35. Ibid.
  36. 36. Ibid.
  37. 37. Ibid.
  38. 38. Tunde Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion: The Debate in the 1830s,” Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 127–142.
  39. 39. Lewis Woodson (“Augustine”), “The West,” Colored American, February 16, 1839, March 2, 1839; March 16, 1839; June 15, 1839; and August 31, 1839. Also Woodson, “Going West,” July 15, 1839.
  40. 40. Lewis Woodson (“Augustine”), “Death vs. Expatriation,” Colored American, October 27, 1838, 2.
  41. 41. Ibid.
  42. 42. Ibid.
  43. 43. Ibid.
  44. 44. The Colored American, October 6, 1838, 2; March 13, 1841, 6.
  45. 45. William Whipper, “An Address on Non-Violent Resistance to Offensive Aggression,” Colored American, September 16 and 30, 1837.
  46. 46. Ibid.
  47. 47. Ibid.
  48. 48. Whipper, “An Address on Non-Violent Resistance.” See also Richard P. McCormick, “William Whipper: Moral Reformer,” Pennsylvania History 43 (1976), 23–46
  49. 49. Woodson (“Augustine”), “Death vs. Expatriation.”
  50. 50. Page 164 →Ibid.
  51. 51. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, chap. 3.
  52. 52. Martin Delany, “Report from Wilmington, Delaware,” North Star, December 15, 1848; Martin Delany, “Report from Columbus, Ohio,” North Star, April 28, 1848; Martin Delany, “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio,” North Star, May 26, 1848.
  53. 53. Bruce Laurie, Working People of Philadelphia, 1800–1850 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 62–64; Elizabeth Geffen, “Violence in Philadelphia in the 1840s and 1850s” Pennsylvania History 4 (October 1969). See also Carter Jackson, Force and Freedom.
  54. 54. Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker, eds., Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, vol. 1, 1840–1865 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), 113.
  55. 55. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 44; Victor Ullman, Martin Robison Delany: The Beginnings of Black Nationalism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 40.
  56. 56. “Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, Cleveland, Ohio, September 6–8, 1848,” North Star, September 29, 1848.
  57. 57. Carter Jackson, Force and Freedom, 52.
  58. 58. Ibid.
  59. 59. Ibid., 53.
  60. 60. Ibid., 53.
  61. 61. R. J. M. Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom: Fugitive Slaves, the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law, and the Politics of Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 47.
  62. 62. Martin R. Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1993), chap. 16. First published in 1852.
  63. 63. Ibid., 154.
  64. 64. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 76. See also Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom.
  65. 65. Ibid., 43.
  66. 66. “The Case of Alexander Hendrickure (Hendrickson),” Frederick Douglass’s Paper, June 17, 1853.
  67. 67. Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 527–538.
  68. 68. Ibid., 527.
  69. 69. Ibid., 538.
  70. 70. Carter Jackson, Force and Freedom, 54–79.
  71. 71. Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom, 47.
  72. 72. Carol Wilson, Freedom at Risk: The Kidnapping of Free Blacks in America, 1780–1865 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994), 115.
  73. 73. Delany, The Condition, chap. 16.
  74. 74. Martin Delany, “Political Aspects of the Colored People of the United States,” Provincial Freeman, October 13, 1855. Martin Delany, “Political Events,” Provincial Freeman, July 5, 1856.
  75. 75. Page 165 →Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom, 307.
  76. 76. Ibid., 307.
  77. 77. Patrick Rael, Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 238.
  78. 78. Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom, 124–125.
  79. 79. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014), 124–130.
  80. 80. Ibid., 130.
  81. 81. Davis, The Problem of Slavery. See also Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom. Also Blackett, “Martin Delany and Robert Campbell: Black Americans in Search of an African Colony,” Journal of Negro History 60, no. 1 (January 1977).
  82. 82. William L. Garrison, “The Letter from Dr. Delany.” Liberator, May 7, 1852.
  83. 83. “The Letter from Dr. Delany,” Liberator, May 21, 1852.
  84. 84. Robert B. McGlone, John Brown’s War against Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
  85. 85. William E. B. Du Bois, John Brown (new edition). New York: International Publishers Co., 2014.
  86. 86. Quoted in William W. Hassler, “John Brown: Saint v. Madman?” Undated article in Stanley J. Smith Papers, Regional Room, the Walden Library, the University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
  87. 87. David Blight, ed., Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003), 71–94, 271–291. See also Goldstein, “Violence as an instrument for Social Change,” 61–72. See also Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Written by Himself) (New York: Bonanza Books, 1962), 271–275, 302–324. First published in 1892.
  88. 88. Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, 275.
  89. 89. Ibid., chap. 10.
  90. 90. Ibid., 319.
  91. 91. Goldstein, “Violence as an Instrument for Social Change,” 65.
  92. 92. Ibid., 71.
  93. 93. Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, 319–320.
  94. 94. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 86.
  95. 95. Ibid.
  96. 96. Ibid.
  97. 97. Charleston Mercury, October 12, 1860.
  98. 98. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 87–88.
  99. 99. Rollin, Life and Public Services; McGlone, John Brown’s War, 235–245.
  100. 100. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 93.
  101. 101. McGlone, John Brown’s War, 397.
  102. 102. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 355.
  103. 103. See Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker, eds., Proceedings of the Black State Conventions. See also Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions.
  104. 104. Page 166 →Rollin, Life and Public Services, 282–283.
  105. 105. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, chap. 4. See also Rollin, Life and Public Services, 281–283.
  106. 106. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 282–283.
  107. 107. Sean Wilentz, ed., David Walker’s Appeal. New York: Hill & Wang, 1995, 43.
  108. 108. Ibid.
  109. 109. Tunde Adeleke, “Violence as an Option for Free Blacks in Nineteenth-Century America,” Canadian Review of American Studies 35 (2005): 101.
  110. 110. Harry A. Reed, “Henry H. Garnet’s Address to the Slaves of the United States of America, Reconsidered,” Western Journal of Black Studies 6, no. 4 (1982), 190.
  111. 111. Ofari, Let Your Motto be Resistance, 153.
  112. 112. Ibid.
  113. 113. William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, “The Negro Convention Movement,” in Key Issues in the Afro-American Experience, Vol. 1, to 1877, ed. Nathan I. Higgins, Martin Kilson, and Daniel M. Fox (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971), 191–205.
  114. 114. Blight, ed., Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, chap. 10. See also Douglass, Life and Times, 271–275, 302–324.
  115. 115. Martin R. Delany, Blake, Or, the Huts of America, serialized in the Anglo-African Magazine, January–July 1869, and in the Weekly Anglo-African Magazine, November 1861–April 1862. Compiled, edited, and published in 1970 by Floyd J. Miller. See also Jerome McGann, ed., Blake, Or, The Huts of America: A Corrected Edition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).
  116. 116. Ronald Takaki, Violence in the Black Imagination: Essays and Documents (New York: G. P. Putnam’s, 1972), 12.
  117. 117. Vincent Harding, There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1983), 208.
  118. 118. John Zeugner, “A Note on Martin Delany’s Blake and Black Militancy,” Phylon 32 (March 1971): 90–103.
  119. 119. Ibid.
  120. 120. Jean F. Yellin, The Intricate Knot: Black Figures in American Literature, 1776–1863 (New York: New York University Press, 1972), 197–211.
  121. 121. Addison Gayle Jr., The Way of the World: The Black Novel in America (New York: Archon Books, 1976), xiii, 13, 21–28.
  122. 122. Roger Hite, “Stand Still and See the Salvation: Rhetorical Designs of Martin Delany’s Blake,” Journal of Black Studies 5 (December 1976), 194.
  123. 123. Judith Madera, Black Atlas: Geography and Flow in Nineteenth-Century African American Literature (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015), 75. See also her “Atlantic Architectures: Nineteenth-Century Cartography and Martin Delany’s Blake,” English Language Notes 52, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 2014).
  124. 124. Martha Schoolman, Abolitionist Geographies (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014), 1. See also Katy Chiles, “Within and without Raced Nations: Intertextuality, Martin Delany, and Blake, Or, The Huts of America,” American Literature 80, Page 167 →no. 2 (June 2008), and her “Defining Blake,” American Periodicals: A Journal of History & Criticism 28, no. 1 (2018).
  125. 125. Delany, Blake, 16.
  126. 126. Ibid., 20.
  127. 127. Ibid., 16.
  128. 128. Excerpts from Delany’s reports are published in Robert Levine, Martin R. Delany: A Documentary Reader (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003)
  129. 129. Martin Delany, “Domestic Economy,” 1–3, North Star, March 23, April 13 and 27, 1849.
  130. 130. Levine, Martin R. Delany.
  131. 131. Delany, Blake, part 1.
  132. 132. Ibid.
  133. 133. Ibid., 105.
  134. 134. Ibid.
  135. 135. Delany, Blake, 122. It should be recalled that Delany first invoked the religious injunction “Stand still and see the salvation” back in the late 1840s during his antislavery lecture tours for the North Star. At that time, he was against the injunction, which he considered detrimental to the cause of Black freedom and equality. It reinforced the providential deterministic worldview that he argued misled Blacks into abrogating their responsibility for self-improvement. Instead they focused on heavenly intercession and compensation. By the late 1850s, however, Delany would invoke the religious precept, paradoxically, to convince Blacks who considered violence to seek and hope for divine guidance. The invocation of this injunction in Blake underscore the vital point of intersection between religion/politics and nationalism in Delany’s thought.
  136. 136. Ibid.
  137. 137. Ibid., 128.
  138. 138. Ibid.
  139. 139. Ibid., 306–308.
  140. 140. Ibid., 309.
  141. 141. Ibid., 313.
  142. 142. Ibid., 314.
  143. 143. Ibid.
  144. 144. Ibid., chap. 74.
  145. 145. Ibid.
  146. 146. Ibid., chap. 16.
  147. 147. Ibid., 290–293.
  148. 148. Ibid., 292–293.
  149. 149. Ibid.
  150. 150. Rev. Moses Dickson, Manual of the International Order of Twelve of Knights and Daughters of Tabor, 8th ed. (Glasgow, MO: Moses Dickson, 1911). See also Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York: Citadel Press, 1965), 378.
  151. 151. Page 168 →Aptheker, A Documentary History, 378.
  152. 152. Ibid., 378–9.
  153. 153. Ibid.
  154. 154. Ibid., 379–380.
  155. 155. Adeleke, “Violence as an Option for Free Blacks …,” 88.
  156. 156. Aptheker, A Documentary History, 379.
  157. 157. Eddie Glaude Jr., Exodus! Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 34.
  158. 158. Ibid., 41.
  159. 159. Grant Shreve, “The Exodus of Martin Delany,” American Literary History 29, no. 3 (2017): 452–453.
  160. 160. Ibid., 470
  161. 161. Delany, Blake, 261–262
  162. 162. Ibid., 262
  163. 163. Ibid.
  164. 164. Ibid.
  165. 165. McGann, ed., Blake, Or, The Huts of America, 24.
  166. 166. Ibid., 28.
  167. 167. Madera, Black Atlas, 112–113. See also Robert Carr, Black Nationalism in the New World: Reading the African American and West Indian Experience (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002) 65–67.
  168. 168. Shreve, “The Exodus of Martin Delany,” 451.
  169. 169. McGann, ed., Blake, Or, The Huts of America, 28.
  170. 170. News and Courier (Charleston), October 7, 1874.
  171. 171. Edward Magdol, “Martin R. Delany Counsels Freedmen, July 23, 1865,” Journal of Negro History 56 (1971): 308.
  172. 172. News and Courier, October 7, 1874.
  173. 173. New York Times, November 27, 1870.
  174. 174. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 300.

Chapter 3

  1. 1. Heather Andrea Williams, Self-Thought: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 7.
  2. 2. Ibid., 14.
  3. 3. Ibid.
  4. 4. Ibid., 16–17.
  5. 5. Hilary Green, Educational Reconstruction: African American Schools in the Urban South, 1865–1890 (New York: Fordham University Press, 2016), 4–5.
  6. 6. David W. Blight, ed., Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself, 2nd ed. (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003), 63.
  7. 7. Page 169 →Ibid.
  8. 8. Ibid.
  9. 9. Ibid., 64.
  10. 10. Williams, Self-Thought, 24–27.
  11. 11. Howard H. Bell, Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864 (New York: Arno Press, 1964).
  12. 12. Booker T. Washington, Up From Slavery: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday), 1901; William E. B. Du Bois, “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others,” in Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (Chicago: A. C. McClurg and Co., 1903), 41–59.
  13. 13. J. D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1988); H. A. Bullock, A History of Negro Education in the South: From 1619 to the Present (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); R. E. Butchardt, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction: Freedmen’s Education, 1862–1875 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980).
  14. 14. Ibid.
  15. 15. Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 6th ed. (New York: International Publishers, 1983); Alfred L. Brophy, “The Nat Turner Trials,” North Carolina Law Review 96 (June 2013), 1818–1880.
  16. 16. Dorothy Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American: Martin Robison Delany, 1812–1885 (New York: Doubleday, 1971).
  17. 17. Ibid., 3–34.
  18. 18. Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 3–18. See also Frank A. Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1868), 30–37.
  19. 19. Rollin, Life and Public Services.
  20. 20. Ibid. See also Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American.
  21. 21. Ibid.
  22. 22. Ibid.
  23. 23. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 39; Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 42–43. See also A. J. W. Hutton, Some Historical Data Concerning the History of Chambersburg (Chambersburg, PA: Franklin Repository, 1930); Victor Ullman, Martin R. Delany: The Beginnings of Black Nationalism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 26–27; Dorothy B. Porter, “The Organized Educational Activities of Negro Literary Societies, 1828–1846,” Journal of Negro Education 5 (October 1936): 573.
  24. 24. Ullman, Martin R. Delany, 26–27; Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 42–43.
  25. 25. Porter, “The Organized Educational Activities,” 173; Ullman, Martin R. Delany, 25–26.
  26. 26. Martin Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1997), 197. First published in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1852.
  27. 27. Ibid., 197–198.
  28. 28. Page 170 →John H. Russell, “The Free Negro in Virginia, 1819–1865,” Johns Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science 31 (1912): 13–15, 146–151.
  29. 29. Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American, 122–135. Delany had long manifested an interest in medicine. He had gained crucial experience by apprenticing himself to some of the leading physicians in Pittsburgh (Drs. Samuel McDowell, Joseph P. Gazzan, and Francis J. Lemoyne). From them he mastered the practices of bloodletting, cupping, and leeching, and how to set broken legs, sew wounds, and deliver babies. These experiences enabled him to play such crucial life-saving roles in the cholera epidemic of 1849. These physicians would subsequently strongly endorse and recommend his application to Harvard.
  30. 30. Philip Cash, “Pride, Prejudice, and Politics,” Harvard Medical School Alumni Bulletin (1980): 20–25; Ronald Takaki, “Aesculapius Was a White Man: Antebellum Racism and Male Chauvinism at Harvard Medical School,” Phylon 39, no. 2 (1978): 129–134; Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American.
  31. 31. Martin Delany, “Highly Important Statistics, Our Cause and Destiny: Endowment of a Newspaper,” North Star, October 5, 1849, 4.
  32. 32. Delany, The Condition, 190–197.
  33. 33. Ibid.
  34. 34. Tunde Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion: The Debate in the 1830s and 1840s,” Journal of Negro History 80, no. 111 (1998); Howard H. Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society, 1836–1841,” Journal of Negro Education 25, no. 11 (Winter 1958).
  35. 35. Delany, The Condition, 198–199.
  36. 36. Ibid., 190–197.
  37. 37. Ibid., 194–197.
  38. 38. Martin Delany, “Letter from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,” North Star, December 1, 1848, 2.
  39. 39. Delany, The Condition, 193.
  40. 40. Ibid.
  41. 41. Ibid.
  42. 42. Ibid.
  43. 43. Ibid., 193–194.
  44. 44. Ibid.
  45. 45. Ibid.
  46. 46. Delany, “Letter from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania”; Martin Delany, “Letter from Lancaster City, Pennsylvania,” North Star, January 5, 1849, 2.
  47. 47. Delany, “Letter from Lancaster City, Pennsylvania.”
  48. 48. Ibid. Also, Delany, “Letter from Cincinnati, Ohio,” North Star, May 26, 1848, 2.
  49. 49. Martin Delany, “Letter from Columbus, Ohio,” North Star, April 28, 1848, 2; Martin Delany, “Letter from Chillicothe, Ohio,” North Star, May 12, 1848, 2.
  50. 50. Ibid.
  51. 51. Ibid.
  52. 52. Delany, The Condition, 195.
  53. 53. Page 171 →Delany, “Letter from Chillicothe, Ohio”; Delany, “Letter from Cincinnati, Ohio.” See also Delany, “Colored Citizens of Cincinnati,” North Star, June 15, 1849, 4.
  54. 54. Delany, “Letter from Lancaster City, Pennsylvania.”
  55. 55. Ibid.
  56. 56. Delany, “Letter from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,” North Star, March 9, 1849, 2.
  57. 57. Ibid.
  58. 58. Ibid.
  59. 59. Delany, The Condition, 195–196.
  60. 60. Ibid.
  61. 61. Delany, “Letter from Wilmington, Delaware,” North Star, December 15, 1848, 2. See also Delany, The Condition, 190–197.
  62. 62. Delany, The Condition, 195.
  63. 63. Ibid.
  64. 64. Ibid.
  65. 65. M. C., “Letter from York, Pennsylvania, November 27, 1848,” North Star, December 15, 1848, 2.
  66. 66. Delany, “Letter from Wilmington, Delaware.”
  67. 67. Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864 (New York: Arno Press, 1969); Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker, eds., Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, 1840–1865, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979).
  68. 68. Bell, Minutes of the Proceedings.
  69. 69. Foner and Walker, eds., Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, vol. 1, 113–114.
  70. 70. Ibid., 73–74.
  71. 71. Delany, The Condition, 195–196.
  72. 72. Ibid.
  73. 73. Ibid., 196.
  74. 74. Ibid., 193.
  75. 75. Ibid.
  76. 76. Ibid., 191–193.
  77. 77. Ibid.
  78. 78. Delany, The Condition, 191–193. See also Delany, “Letter from Wilmington, Delaware.”
  79. 79. Delany, The Condition, 194.
  80. 80. Martin Delany, “Political Economy” North Star, March 16, 1849, 2.
  81. 81. Ibid.
  82. 82. Ibid.
  83. 83. Delany, “Letter from Lancaster City, Pennsylvania.”
  84. 84. “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio, May 7, 1848,” North Star, May 26, 1848.
  85. 85. Ibid.
  86. 86. “Report from Cincinnati, May 20, 1848,” North Star, June 9, 1848.
  87. 87. Delany, The Condition, 192–193.
  88. 88. Page 172 →Ibid., 193.
  89. 89. Ibid.
  90. 90. Ibid., 17.
  91. 91. Ibid., 45.
  92. 92. Ibid., 17–18.
  93. 93. Delany, The Condition, 44–45. A few pages later, Delany would render a positive review and analysis of Black accomplishments that contradicted this negative and gloomy characterization. Two years later, as leader of the emigration movement, Delany would invalidate the claim that Blacks had “no reference to ancient times.” His writings in support of emigration established the antiquity of civilization in Africa as well as Blacks America’s rich heritage of history and culture. See his “The International Policy of the World towards the African Race” and “Political Destiny of the Colored People on the American Continent,” in Life and Public Services, ed. Rollin, 313–367; and “The Moral and Social Aspects of Africa,” Liberator, May 1, 1863.
  94. 94. Delany, The Condition, 85–86.
  95. 95. Delany, The Condition, 85–86, chapters 9, 10, 11, 12. See also “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio, May 20, 1848,” North Star, June 9, 1848.
  96. 96. Delany, The Condition, 109–110.
  97. 97. “Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, Cleveland, Ohio, September 6–8, 1848,” North Star, September 29, 1848.
  98. 98. Douglass to Delany, New National Era, August 31, 1871.
  99. 99. “Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, Cleveland, Ohio, September 6–8, 1848,” North Star, September 29, 1848.
  100. 100. Delany, The Condition, 196.
  101. 101. Ibid., 43.
  102. 102. Ibid., 199.
  103. 103. Ibid. See also Rollin, Life and Public Services, 49–50.
  104. 104. Delany, The Condition, 198–199.
  105. 105. Ibid.
  106. 106. Ibid., 196.
  107. 107. Ibid., 43.
  108. 108. Delany, “Letter from Wilmington, Delaware.”
  109. 109. Ibid.
  110. 110. Ibid.
  111. 111. Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion.”
  112. 112. Ibid.
  113. 113. Elizabeth Geffen, “Violence in Philadelphia in the 1840s and 1850s,” Pennsylvania History 6, (October 1969); Adam D. Simmons, “Ideologies and Programs of the Negro Anti-Slavery Movement, 1830–1861” (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1983).
  114. 114. Delany, The Condition.
  115. 115. Page 173 →Delany, The Condition. See also Martin Delany, “Political Aspects of the Colored People,” Provincial Freeman, October 13, 1855, 5. “Political Events,” Provincial Freeman, July 5, 1856, 5.
  116. 116. “Frederick Douglass to H. B. Stowe, March 8, 1853,” in Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, ed. Bell, 33–38.
  117. 117. “Report of the Committee on Manual Labor School,” in Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, ed. Bell, 31–33.
  118. 118. Frederick Douglass, “Remarks” Frederick Douglass’s Paper, April 11, 1853, 3. “Letter to Mrs. H. B. Stowe,” in Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, ed. Bell, 33–38.
  119. 119. Martin Delany, “Letter to Frederick Douglass,” Frederick Douglass’s Paper, April 11, 1853, 3.
  120. 120. Ibid., 4.
  121. 121. Ibid.
  122. 122. Frederick Douglass, “Remarks.”
  123. 123. Martin Delany, “Freedmen’s Bureau Report, 1867,” Microcopy 849, Roll 35. Records of the Assistant Commissioners of the State of South Carolina. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL) 1865–1870. Columbia, South Carolina: South Carolina Department of Archives and History.
  124. 124. Ibid.
  125. 125. Martin Delany, “Freedmen’s Bureau Report, September 1867,” Records of the Assistant Commissioners of the State of South Carolina. BRFAL 1865–1870. National Archives, Washington, DC, Microcopy 849, Roll 35, 354–362.
  126. 126. Delany, “Freedmen’s Bureau Report, September 1867.”
  127. 127. Ibid.
  128. 128. Martin Delany, “Freedmen’s Bureau Report, May 1868,” Records of the Assistant Commissioners of the State of South Carolina. BRFAL, 1865–1870. National Archives, Washington, DC, Microcopy 849, Roll 35, 773–779.
  129. 129. J. D. Anderson, “The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935,” in Reading, ’riting, and Reconstruction: The Education of Freedmen in the South, 1861–1870, ed. R. C. Morris (Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
  130. 130. Martin Delany, “Freedmen’s Bureau Report, 1868,” Microcopy 849, Roll 35.
  131. 131. Ibid.
  132. 132. E. Wright, “Letter Dated March 17 and 20, 1867,” American Missionary Association Papers, Amistad Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana.
  133. 133. Delany, “Freedmen’s Bureau Report, May 1868,” BRFAL, 773–779.
  134. 134. Ibid.
  135. 135. R. Wilkins, “Letters dated April 22 and May 17, 1867,” The Archives of the American Missionary Association, Amistad Research Center, Tulane University.
  136. 136. Elizabeth A. Summers, “Manuscript dated April 11–June 15.” Columbia, South Carolina: South Caroliniana Research Library, University of South Carolina.
  137. 137. See his reports to the North Star in Robert Levine, ed., Martin R. Delany.
  138. Page 174 →138. Carter G. Woodson, The Miseducation of the Negro (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1990), 38. First published in 1933.
  139. 139. Tunde Adeleke, “Martin R. Delany’s Philosophy of Education: A Neglected Aspect of African-American Liberation Thought,” Journal of Negro Education 63, no. 2 (Spring 1994); Tunde Adeleke, “‘Much Learning Makes Men Mad’: Classical Education and Black Empowerment in Martin R. Delany’s Philosophy of Education,” Journal of Thought 49, nos. 1 and 2 (Spring–Summer 2015).

Chapter 4

  1. 1. Robert Khan, “The Political Ideology of Martin Delany,” Journal of Black Studies (June 1984); Tommie Shelby, “Two Conceptions of Black Nationalism: Martin Delany on the Meaning of Black Political Solidarity,” Political Theory 31, no. 5 (October 2003), 664–692.
  2. 2. Victor Ullman, Martin R. Delany: The Beginnings of Black Nationalism (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), ix.
  3. 3. Theodore Draper, “The Father of American Black Nationalism,” New York Times Review of Books, March 12, 1970. See also his “The Fantasy of Black Nationalism,” Commentary 48 (1969).
  4. 4. North Star, June 16, 1848.
  5. 5. John Ernest, A Nation within a Nation: Organizing African American Communities before the Civil War (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2011).
  6. 6. Martin Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1993). First published in 1852.
  7. 7. Delany, The Condition, 12. See also Ernest, A Nation Within a Nation, 13–13
  8. 8. Delany, The Condition, 17.
  9. 9. Frank Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany (New York: Kraus Reprint Company, 1969), 238. First published in 1868 in Boston by Lee and Shepard.
  10. 10. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 238; John T. McCartney, Black Power Ideologies: An Essay in African American Political Thought (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 38–48.
  11. 11. Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker, eds. Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, Vol. 1, 1840–1865 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), 113.
  12. 12. Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 321.
  13. 13. Delany, The Condition, chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
  14. 14. Delany, The Condition, chapters 16, 17, 18.
  15. 15. Martin Delany, “Political Destiny of the Colored Race on the American Continent,” in Life and Public Services, ed. Rollin, 327–367.
  16. 16. Page 175 →Martin Delany, “Political Aspect of the Colored People of the United States,” Provincial Freeman, October 13, 1855.
  17. 17. Delany, The Condition, 12.
  18. 18. Ernest Allen, “Afro-American Identity: Reflections on the Pre-Civil War Era,” in African American Activism before the Civil War: The Freedom Struggle in the Antebellum North, ed. Patrick Rael (London: Routledge, 2008), 149.
  19. 19. Ibid.
  20. 20. Ibid.
  21. 21. Allen, “Afro-American Identity,” 149–150. See also Delany, “Political Destiny,” in Life and Public Services, ed. Rollin, 327–329.
  22. 22. Martin Delany, The Condition, 49.
  23. 23. Martha S. Jones, Birthright Citizenship: A History of Race and Rights in Antebellum America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 1.
  24. 24. Ibid., 89.
  25. 25. Martin Delany, The Condition, 49. See also, Martha Jones, Birthright Citizenship, 89–90
  26. 26. Martin Delany, The Condition.
  27. 27. Ibid.
  28. 28. Ibid., 51.
  29. 29. Martha Jones, Birthright Citizenship, 90.
  30. 30. Ibid., 90.
  31. 31. Delany, The Condition, chap. 7.
  32. 32. Ibid., 50–51.
  33. 33. Ibid., 50–51.
  34. 34. Ibid., chapters 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
  35. 35. Delany, “Political Aspect.”
  36. 36. Shelby, “Two Conceptions of Black Nationalism,” 669.
  37. 37. Ibid.
  38. 38. Ibid.
  39. 39. Delany “Political Destiny,” in Life and Public Services, ed. Rollin, 329–330.
  40. 40. Ibid.
  41. 41. Ibid.
  42. 42. Ibid.
  43. 43. Martin Delany, The Condition, 67.
  44. 44. Ibid.
  45. 45. Ibid., chapters 10, 11, 12, 14.
  46. 46. Ibid., 37–44. See also North Star, March 6, 1849.
  47. 47. Delany, The Condition, 42.
  48. 48. Ibid., 39–40.
  49. 49. Delany, The Condition, 95–96. See also Richard P. McCormick, “William Whipper: Moral Reformer,” Pennsylvania History 10, no. 11 (January 1976).
  50. 50. Page 176 →C. Peter Ripley, ed., The Black Abolitionist Papers, vol. 3, The United States, 1830–1846 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 129–130, 259–260.
  51. 51. Dorothy Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American: Martin Robison Delany, 1812–1883 (New York: Doubleday and Company, 1971), 39–45; Rollin, Life and Public Services, 38–39; Delany, The Condition, 95–96.
  52. 52. Tunde Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion: The Debates in the 1830s and 1840s,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 83, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 127–142. See also The Colored American, December 9, 1837, 2; December 16, 1837, 2; February 16, 1839, 2; May 2, 1839, 2; May 3, 1839; Richard McCormick, “William Whipper”, 28–29; Colored American, September 16, 1837, August 16, 1837, 2; September 9, 1837, 2; January 8, 1837, 2.
  53. 53. Ibid.
  54. 54. Howard H. Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society, 1836–1841,” Journal of Negro Education 25, no. 11 (Winter 1958); Richard McCormick, “William Whipper.”
  55. 55. Ibid. See also Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion.”
  56. 56. Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Fifth Annual Convention for the Improvement of the Free People of Color in the United States, Wesley Church, Philadelphia, June 1–5, 1835. (Philadelphia: William P. Gibbons, 1835), 27. Reprinted in his Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864 (New York: Arno Press, 1969).
  57. 57. Howard H. Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society”; Adeleke, “Afro-Americans and Moral Suasion.”
  58. 58. “Minutes and Proceedings of the Second Annual Convention for the Improvement of the Free People of Color in These United States, Philadelphia, June 4–13, 1832” (Philadelphia: Benj. Paschal, Theo Butler, and Jas G. Mathews Publishers, 1832), 34. Preprinted in Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864, ed. Howard H. Bell.
  59. 59. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 48–49.
  60. 60. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 48–49. See also Martin Delany, The Condition, chap. 4. North Star, April 7, 1848, 2; October 6, 1849, 2; January 5, 1849.
  61. 61. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 55.
  62. 62. William McFeely, Frederick Douglass (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991); William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, “Boston Garrisonians and the Problem of Frederick Douglass,” Canadian Journal of History 11, no. 2 (September 1967); Benjamin Quarles, “The Breach Between Douglass and Garrison,” Journal of Negro History 23, no. 21 (April 1938); Tyrone Tillery, “The Inevitability of the Douglass-Garrison Conflict,” Phylon 37, no. 2 (June 1976); Philip S. Foner, Frederick Douglass: A Biography (New York: Citadel Press, 1964), 15–172.
  63. 63. Robert Levine, Martin R. Delany: A Documentary Reader (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
  64. 64. Martin Delany, The Condition, 194.
  65. 65. Robert W. Caldwell, Theologies of the American Revivalists: From Whitefield to Finney (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2017); Leon F. Litwack, North of Page 177 →Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Leonard P. Curry, The Free Black in Urban America, 1800–1850: The Shadow of the Dream (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); James O. Horton and Lois E. Horton, In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community and Protest among Northern Free Blacks, 1700–1860 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
  66. 66. Martin Delany, “Colored Citizens of Pittsburgh,” North Star, July 13, 1849; Martin Delany, “Report from Cleveland, Ohio, July 24, 1848,” North Star, August 4, 1848; Martin Delany, “Report from Hanover, Ohio, March 27, 1848,” North Star, April 14, 1848; Martin Delany, “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio, May 7, 1848,” North Star, May 26, 1848; Martin Delany, “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio, May 20, 1848,” North Star, June 9, 1848.
  67. 67. Ibid.
  68. 68. North Star, December 15, 1848.
  69. 69. Martin Delany, The Condition, 42.
  70. 70. Ibid., 41.
  71. 71. Ibid.
  72. 72. Ibid.
  73. 73. Ibid., 42.
  74. 74. Ibid., 41–42.
  75. 75. Ibid., chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
  76. 76. Martin Delany, “American Civilization: Treatment of the Colored People in the United States” North Star, March 30, 1849, 2.
  77. 77. Adam D. Simmons, “Ideologies and Programs of the Negro Anti-Slavery Movement, 1830–1861” (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1983), 32.
  78. 78. Ibid., 34.
  79. 79. Philip S. Foner and George E. Walker, eds., Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, Vol. 2, 1840–1865 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), 124.
  80. 80. Martin Delany, “National Disfranchisement of Colored People” in The Condition, 147–159.
  81. 81. Delany, The Condition, 11–12. See also “Letter from Mr. Delany, Pittsburgh, March 22, 1853,” Frederick Douglass’s Paper, April 11, 1853; Rollin, Life and Public Services, 359–360.
  82. 82. Delany, The Condition, 12.
  83. 83. Ibid., 13.
  84. 84. “Letter from Mr. Delany,” Frederick Douglass’s Paper, April 11, 1853.
  85. 85. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 335.
  86. 86. Delany, The Condition, 158.
  87. 87. Delany, “National Disfranchisement of Colored People,” The Condition, chap. 16.
  88. 88. Delany, The Condition, 49.
  89. 89. Ibid., 50.
  90. 90. Ibid., 153–154.
  91. 91. Ibid., 154.
  92. 92. Rollin, Life and Public Services, 329.
  93. 93. Page 178 →Delany, The Condition, 155.
  94. 94. Ibid., 210.
  95. 95. Ibid., 11–12.
  96. 96. Ibid., 14.
  97. 97. Ibid., 153–154.
  98. 98. Ibid., 157–158.
  99. 99. Maurice O. Wallace, Constructing the Black Masculine: Identity and Ideality in African American Men’s Literature and Culture, 1775–1995 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002,) 69.
  100. 100. Ibid., 71.
  101. 101. Martin Delany, Trial and Conviction (Charleston, 1876), 3.
  102. 102. Tunde Adeleke, Without Regard to Race: The Other Martin R. Delany (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003), 91–93.
  103. 103. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race. See also Rollin, Life and Public Services, 283.
  104. 104. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, chap. 4.
  105. 105. Martin Delany, A Series of Four Tracts on National Polity (Charleston, SC: Republican Book and Job Office, 1870).
  106. 106. Ibid.
  107. 107. Ibid.
  108. 108. Ibid.
  109. 109. Ibid.
  110. 110. Ibid.
  111. 111. Ibid., 6.
  112. 112. Ibid.
  113. 113. Ibid.
  114. 114. Ibid., 10.
  115. 115. Ibid.
  116. 116. Martin Delany, “A Political Review [Letter to Frederick Douglass],” Daily Republican, August 15, 1871.
  117. 117. Ibid.
  118. 118. Ibid.
  119. 119. “Delany to Justice Jonathan Wright, Charleston, February 10, 1874,” New York Times, February 21, 1874.
  120. 120. Ibid.
  121. 121. Martin Delany, “A Political Review.”
  122. 122. New York Times, February 16, 1874.
  123. 123. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, 112–118.
  124. 124. “Independent Republican Party: M. P. 1874,” Manuscript, South Caroliniana Research Library, Columbia, South Carolina. See also Thomas Holt, Black Over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction (Urbana: University Illinois Press, 1979), chap. 8.
  125. 125. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, chap. 5.
  126. 126. Page 179 →Blacks first publicly manifested their anger toward, and frustration with, Delany at a joint Republican and Democratic rally on October 4, 1876. While most of the Democratic speakers addressed the rally with minimum of interruptions, Delany was prevented from speaking. As he rose to speak, angry Blacks (men, women, and even children) began cursing and pointing accusingly at him. He was “howled down” and prevented. See Alfred B. Williams, Hampton and His Red Shirts: South Carolina Deliverance in 1876 (Charleston, SC: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1936), 260–261. Delany narrowly escaped death at another joint rally in Cainhoy, Edgefield County, when a Colored Democrat named McKinlay was mistaken for Delany and fired at by the Black militia. Delany and a few other Democrats sought refuge in an old brick building. Upon learning that Delany was in the building, the crowd stormed it, but he escaped. There were several casualties. See, Charleston News and Courier, October 1, 1876, 3; October 17, 18, 1876. See also Henry T. Thompson, Ousting the Carpetbagger from South Carolina (New York: Negro University Press, 1926), 120.
  127. 127. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, 148–160.
  128. 128. Walter Allen, Governor Chamberlain’s Administration in South Carolina: A Chapter of Reconstruction in the Southern State (New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 284.
  129. 129. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, 127–134.
  130. 130. Daily Republican, July 5, 1870; July 25, 1870, 2.
  131. 131. Adeleke, Without Regard to Race, chap. 5.
  132. 132. Martin Delany, “Citizenship,” National Era, March 10, 1870.
  133. 133. Martin Delany, “Third Offence,” in his Trial and Conviction, 7.
  134. 134. Ibid.
  135. 135. “Speech of Col. Delany,” Daily Republican, August 20, 1870.
  136. 136. “A Rousing Ratification Meeting Last Night,” News and Courier, October 7, 1874.
  137. 137. Daily Republican, July 5, 1870; July 25, 1870, 2; July 24, 1870; July 15, 1870.
  138. 138. Daily Republican, July 25, 1870, 2.
  139. 139. Peter Eisenstadt, Black Conservatism: Essays in Intellectual and Political History (New York: Routledge, 1999), 19.
  140. 140. The New York Times, November 27, 1870.
  141. 141. Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed., Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
  142. 142. Eisenstadt, Black Conservatism, 19.
  143. 143. Rabinowitz, ed., Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era.

Conclusion

  1. 1. “Report from Cincinnati, Ohio, June 4, 1848,” North Star, June 16, 1848.
  2. 2. “Report from Milton, Ohio, June 18, 1848,” North Star, July 7, 1848.
  3. 3. “Report from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, November 5, 1848,” North Star, November 17, 1848.
  4. 4. Page 180 →Veronica Alease Davis, Hampton University (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2014).
  5. 5. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), chap. 2.
  6. 6. Martin Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1993), 193. First published in 1852.
  7. 7. Ibid.
  8. 8. Ibid., 196.
  9. 9. Booker T. Washington, “The Atlanta Exposition Address” in Readings in African-American History, ed. Thomas R. Frazier, 3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson, 2001), 195.
  10. 10. Ibid., 197.
  11. 11. Tunde Adeleke, Martin R. Delany’s Civil War and Reconstruction: A Primary Source Reader (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2020).
  12. 12. Cary D. Mintz, African American Political Thought, 1890–1930: Washington, Du Bois, Garvey and Randolph (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
  13. 13. Ben Crump, Legalized Genocide of Colored People: Open Season (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2019); Earl Ofari Hutchinson, The Assassination of the Black Male Image (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996).
  14. 14. Martin Delany, “Report from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,” North Star, March 9, 1849.
  15. 15. Martin Delany, “American Civilization—Treatment of the Colored People in the United States,” North Star, March 30, 1849.
  16. 16. Ibid.
  17. 17. Ibid.
  18. 18. Ibid.
  19. 19. Ibid.
  20. 20. Ibid.

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